Stage Lighting Design the Art the Craft the Life

Craft of lighting at performances

Classical Spectacular used ordinary stage lighting plus special laser effects

Stage lighting is the craft of lighting as it applies to the production of theater, dance, opera, and other functioning arts.^[1] Several unlike types of stage lighting instruments are used in this subject field.^[two] In addition to basic lighting, modern phase lighting can likewise include special furnishings, such as lasers and fog machines. People who work on phase lighting are commonly referred to as lighting technicians or lighting designers.

The equipment used for stage lighting (eastward.g. cabling, dimmers, lighting instruments, controllers) are also used in other lighting applications, including corporate events, concerts, trade shows, broadcast television, film product, photographic studios, and other types of alive events. The personnel needed to install, operate, and control the equipment likewise cross over into these different areas of "phase lighting" applications.

History [edit]

The primeval known form of stage lighting was during the early on Grecian (and later the Roman) theaters. They would build their theatres facing east to west and so that in the afternoon they could perform plays and have the natural sunlight hit the actors, just non those seated in the orchestra. Natural low-cal continued to exist utilized when playhouses were built with a large round opening at the summit of the theater. Early on Modern English theaters were roofless, assuasive natural light to be utilized for lighting the phase. As theaters moved indoors, artificial lighting became a necessity and it was developed every bit theaters and technology became more avant-garde. At an unknown appointment, candlelight was introduced which brought more developments to theatrical lighting beyond Europe.

While Oliver Cromwell was ruling United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, all stage production was suspended in 1642 and no advancements were made to English theaters. During this theatrical famine, great developments were being made in theaters on the European mainland. Charles Two, who would afterwards become King Charles Two witnessed Italian theatrical methods and brought them back to England when he came to power. New playhouses were built in England and their large sizes called for more elaborate lighting. Later the refurbishing of the theaters, it was found that the "main source of light in Restoration theaters to exist chandeliers" which were "concentrated toward the front of the house, and especially over the forestage".^[3] English theatres during this fourth dimension used dipped candles to calorie-free chandeliers and sconces. Dipped candles were made by dipping a wick into hot wax repeatedly to create a cylindrical candle. Candles needed frequent trimming and relighting regardless of what was happening on-phase because "they dripped hot grease on both the audience and actors".^[3] Chandeliers also blocked the view of some patrons.

There were 2 unlike types of Restoration theaters in England: Restoration commercial theaters and Restoration court theaters. Commercial theaters tended to be more "bourgeois in their lighting, for economical reasons" and therefore used "candle-called-for chandeliers" primarily. Court theatres could beget to "use most of the Continental innovations" in their productions.^[3] Theaters such equally the Drury Lane Theatre and the Covent Garden Theatre were lit by a large central chandelier and had a varying number of smaller stage chandeliers and candle sconces around the walls of the theaters.^[3] Two main court theaters, built between 1660 and 1665, were the Cockpit Theatre and the Hall Theatre. Chandeliers and sconces seemed to be the master lighting sources here but other developments were being fabricated, peculiarly at the Hall. By the 1670s, the Hall Theatre started using footlights, and between 1670 and 1689 they used candles or lamps. It can exist noted that by the end of the 17th century, "French and English stages were fairly similar".^[3] There is not much written on theatrical lighting in England at the finish of the 17th century and from the picayune information historians do have, not much inverse past the centre of the 18th century. Gas lighting hitting the English stage in the early on 1800s beginning with the Drury Lane and Covent Garden theaters. In the 1820s, a new type of bogus illumination was adult. In this type of illumination, a gas flame is used to heat a cylinder of quicklime (calcium oxide). Upon reaching a certain temperature, the quicklime would begin to incandesce. This illumination could then be directed by reflectors and lenses. It took some time from the development of this new Limelight before it plant its way into theatrical use, which started around 1837. Limelight became pop in the 1860s and beyond, until information technology was displaced by electrical lighting. Lighting advances made in English theaters during this fourth dimension frame paved the style for the many lighting advances in the modern theatrical world.

Functions of lighting [edit]

Dazzling light effects during a Kanye West show in 2011

Stage lighting has multiple functions, including:

• Selective visibility: The ability to run into what is occurring on stage. Any lighting design will be ineffective if the viewers cannot see the characters, unless this is the explicit intent.
• Revelation of form: Altering the perception of shapes onstage, particularly three-dimensional phase elements.
• Focus: Directing the audience'south attention to an area of the stage or distracting them from some other.
• Mood: Setting the tone of a scene. Harsh cerise light has a different issue than soft lavander lite.
• Location and time of twenty-four hour period: Establishing or altering position in time and space. Blues can suggest night time while orangish and red can suggest a sunrise or dusk. Utilize of mechanical filters ("gobos") to project sky scenes, the Moon, etc.
• Project/stage elements: Lighting may be used to project scenery or to act as scenery onstage.
• Plot (script): A lighting event may trigger or advance the activeness onstage and off.
• Limerick: Lighting may exist used to bear witness simply the areas of the phase which the designer wants the audience to see, and to "paint a picture".^{[4] [v]}

• Effect: In popular and rock concerts or DJ shows or raves, colored lights and lasers may be used as a visual outcome.

Lighting design is an fine art form, and thus no one manner is the "right" style. There is a modern movement that states that the lighting design helps to create the environment in which the activity takes place while supporting the mode of the piece. "Mood" is arguable while the surroundings is essential.^[six]

Qualities in lighting [edit]

Intensity [edit]

An example of a rig including moving head, generic and LED fixtures at 'The Tuesday Club'

Intensity is measured in lux, lumens and foot-candles. The intensity of a luminaire (lighting instrument or fixture) depends on a number of factors including its lamp ability, the blueprint of the instrument (and its efficiency), optical obstructions such as color gels or mechanical filters, the distance to the surface area to be lit and the beam or field angle of the fixture, the colour and cloth to be lit, and the relative contrasts to other regions of illumination.^[seven]

Colour [edit]

Color temperature is measured in kelvins. A light'due south apparent color is determined past its lamp color, the color of whatsoever gels in the optical path, its ability level, and the color of the cloth it lights.^[7]

A tungsten lamp'southward colour is typically controlled by inserting ane or more gels (filters) into its optical path. In the simplest example, a unmarried gel is inserted into the optical path to produce light of the same color. For example, a bluish gel is used to create blueish lite. Custom colors are obtained past means of subtractive CMY color mixing, by inserting combinations of cyan, magenta and yellowish filters into the optical path of the lighting fixture. The inserted filters may take varying densities, with correspondingly varied percentages of transmission, that subtractively mix colors (the filters absorb unwanted light colors, but the desired colors pass through unaffected). Manufacturers volition sometimes include an additional green or amber ("CTO" color correction) filter to extend the range (gamut) of subtractive color mixing systems.

Lamp power also influences color in tungsten lamps. Equally the lamp power is decreased, the tungsten filament in a bulb will tend to produce increasing percentages of orangish light, as compared to the about white lite emitted at full power. This is known every bit amber shift or amber drift. Thus a k-watt musical instrument at 50 percent power will emit a college per centum of orange light than a 500-watt instrument operating at full power.^[8]

LED fixtures create colour through additive colour mixing with red, green, blue, and in some cases amber, LEDs at different intensities. This type of colour mixing is often used with borderlights and cyclorama lights.^[ix]

Direction [edit]

Direction refers to the shape, quality and evenness of a lamp'southward output. The pattern of light an musical instrument makes is largely determined by three factors. The start are the specifics of the lamp, reflector and lens assembly. Different mounting positions for the lamp (axial, base up, base of operations down), different sizes and shapes of reflector and the nature of the lens (or lenses) being used can all affect the design of calorie-free. Secondly, the specifics of how the lamp is focused touch on its blueprint. In ellipsoidal reflector spotlights (ERS) or profile spotlights, there are two beams of lite emitted from the lamp. When the cones of both intersect at the throw distance (the altitude to the stage), the lamp has a sharply defined 'difficult' edge. When the 2 cones practise not intersect at that distance, the edge is fuzzy and 'soft'. Depending on which beam (directly or reflected) is exterior the other, the design may exist 'sparse and soft' or 'fat and soft'. Lastly, a gobo or break upwards design may be applied to ERSs and like instruments. This is typically a thin sheet of metal with a shape cutting into information technology. It is inserted into the instrument near its aperture. Gobos, or templates, come in many shapes, just frequently include leaves, waves, stars and like patterns.^[x]

Focus, position, and hanging [edit]

Many stage lights hang on a batten focused in several directions

The focus is where an musical instrument is pointed. The final focus should place the "hot spot" of the beam at the actor's head level when standing at the eye of the instrument's assigned "focus expanse" on the stage. Position refers to the location of an musical instrument in the theater's wing system or on permanent pipes in front-of-house locations. Hanging is the act of placing the instrument in its assigned position.^[11]

Moving lights hanging on a truss, ready for rigging and concatenation motors.

In addition to these, certain modern instruments are automated, referring to motorized movement of either the entire fixture body or the movement of a mirror placed in front of its outermost lens. These fixtures and the more than traditional follow spots add management and motion to the relevant characteristics of light. Automatic fixtures autumn into either the "moving head" or "moving mirror/scanner" category. Scanners have a body which contains the lamp, circuit boards, transformer, and effects (colour, gobo, iris etc.) devices. A mirror is panned and tilted in the desired position past pan and tilt motors, thereby causing the light beam to move. Moving head fixtures have the effects and lamp assembly inside the head with transformers and other electronics in the base or external ballast. In that location are advantages and disadvantages to both. Scanners are typically faster and less costly than moving caput units but have a narrower range of move. Moving head fixtures have a much larger range of movement likewise as a more natural inertial motion but are typically more expensive.^[12]

The above characteristics are not ever static, and it is frequently the variation in these characteristics that is used in achieving the goals of lighting.

Stanley McCandless was perhaps the start to define controllable qualities of light used in theater. In A Method for Lighting the Stage, McCandless discusses color, distribution, intensity and movement as the qualities that can be manipulated by a lighting designer to attain the desired visual, emotional and thematic look on stage. The McCandless method, outlined in that book, is widely embraced today. The method involves lighting an object on the stage from three angles—2 lights at 45 degrees to the left and correct, and 1 at ninety degrees (perpendicular to the front end of the object).^{[13] [fourteen]}

An culling formulation is by Jody Briggs, who calls them Variable of Light: Bending, Color, Intensity, Distance, Texture, Edge-quality, Size, and Shape.^[15]

Lighting professionals [edit]

Lighting designer [edit]

A lighting designer (LD) is familiar with the various types of lighting instruments and their uses. In consultation with the managing director, the DSM (deputy stage manager) and the scenic designer, and after observing rehearsals, the LD creates an instrument schedule and a light plot also as informing the DSM where each 60 (lighting) cue is designed to be triggered in the script, which the DSM notes downwards in their plot book. The schedule is a list of all required lighting equipment, including color gel, gobos, colour wheels, barndoors and other accessories. The calorie-free plot is typically a plan view of the theatre where the operation volition accept place, with every luminaire marked. This typically specifies the approximate lighting focus and management, a reference number, accessories, and the channel number of the dimmer organisation or lighting control panel.^[xvi]

A lighting designer must satisfy the requirements set forth by the director or head planner. Practical experience is required to know the constructive use of different lighting instruments and color in creating a blueprint. Many designers start their careers as lighting technicians. Often, this is followed by grooming in a vocational higher or university that offers theatre courses. Many jobs in larger venues and productions require a degree from a vocational school or college in theatrical lighting, or at least a bachelor'due south degree.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Other positions [edit]

In theater:

• Master electrician/chief electrician
• Production electrician
• Lighting programmer
• Lighting operator/light board operator

In movie:

• Best boy (electrical)
• Gaffer

Lighting equipment [edit]

Lighting instruments [edit]

Source Fours in use at the United States Marine Corps Museum

In the context of lighting pattern, a lighting instrument (also called a luminaire or lantern) is a device that produces controlled lighting equally office of the effects a lighting designer brings to a show. The term lighting instrument is preferred to light to avoid confusion betwixt calorie-free and calorie-free sources.

There are a multifariousness of instruments frequently used in the theater. Although they vary in many means they all accept the following 4 basic components in one form or other:

• Box/Housing – a metallic or plastic container to house the whole instrument and prevent light from spilling in unwanted directions.
• Calorie-free source (lamp).
• Lens or opening – the gap in the housing where the light is intended to come out.
• Reflector – behind or around the light source in such a way equally to direct more light towards the lens or opening.

Additional features will vary depend on the exact blazon of fixture.

Almost theatrical low-cal bulbs (or lamps, the term commonly preferred) are tungsten-element of group vii (or quartz-halogen), an comeback on the original incandescent design that uses a element of group vii gas instead of an inert gas to increase lamp life and output. Fluorescent lights are infrequently used other than every bit worklights because, although they are far more efficient, they are expensive to brand dimmed (run at less than total ability) without using specialised dimmer ballasts and only very expensive models will dim to very low levels. They besides do non produce lite from a single point or easily concentrated area, and usually have a warm-upwards menstruum, during which they emit no light or do so intermittently.^[17] Nevertheless, fluorescent lights are existence used more and more than for special effects lighting in theaters. Loftier-intensity discharge lamps (or HID lamps), however, are now mutual where a very vivid low-cal output is required—for example in big follow spots, hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide (HMI) floods, and modern automated fixtures.^[18] When dimming is required, it is done by mechanical dousers or shutters, equally these types of lamps as well cannot be electrically dimmed.

Over the last six years, LED-based luminaires of all varieties and types take been introduced to the market. Some of these fixtures have become very popular, whereas others take not been able to lucifer the output from incandescent and discharge sources that lighting designers prefer. LED fixtures are making a positive touch on on the lighting market, and are becoming more popular when compared to the free energy usage of electric current incandescent, halogen, and discharge sources.

Ovation E-190WW LED oblong spots (ERS) hanging on 20.5" truss.

Most instruments are suspended or supported by a "U" shaped yoke, or 'trunnion arm' fixed to the sides of the musical instrument, normally nearly its heart of gravity. On the end of such, a clench (known as a hook-clench, C-clamp, or pipe clamp—pipe referring to battens) is normally fixed, fabricated in a "C" configuration with a screw to lock the instrument onto the pipe or crossbar from which it is typically hung. Once secured, the fixture tin can be panned and tilted using tension adjustment knobs on the yoke and clench. An adaptable c-wrench, ratchet (U.s.) or spanner (UK) is often used to assistance the technician in adjusting the fixture.^[19]

Most venues crave an additional metal safe cable or concatenation to be fastened betwixt the fixture and its truss, or other string support anchorage. Some larger fixtures can weigh over 100 lb (45 kg) and are suspended very high above performers heads, and could cause serious injury or death if they barbarous by accident or due to wrong attachment. In the outcome of failure, the cable would halt the fall of the fixture before information technology could cause serious damage or injury. Many venues place strict guidelines regarding the utilize of safety cables.^[20]

The entire lighting appliance includes the lights themselves, the concrete structure which supports them, the cabling, control systems, dimmers, power supplies, and the light boards. (lighting console)

Hanging the lights or hanging the battons to hang the lights is known every bit 'rigging'.

Types of lighting fixture [edit]

All lights are loosely classified as either floodlights (wash lights) or spotlights. The distinction has to do with the caste to which ane is able to control the shape and quality of the light produced by the instrument, with spotlights beingness controllable, sometimes to an extremely precise degree, and floodlights existence completely uncontrollable. Instruments that fall somewhere in the centre of the spectrum can be classified as either a spot or a overflowing, depending on the type of instrument and how it is used. In general, spotlights have lenses while floodlights are lensless, although this is non always the case.

Within the groups of "wash" and "spot" low-cal, there are other, more than specific types of fixtures. This nomenclature also changes beyond the world depending on location and industry.

Contour

These fixtures feature a chemical compound lens which allows the designer to place obstructions within the prototype path which are and then projected. These obstructions could be "gobos" or shutters. A profile is a spot light, but allows for precise focusing. This term is mostly used in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, Australia, and Europe, every bit profile spots in the U.s. and Canada are referred to equally ERS, ellipsoidals, or but Lekos, from the original Lekolite created past Joseph Levy and Edward Kook, founders of Century Lighting, in 1933.

Fresnel

A Fresnel or Fresnel lantern is a type of wash light and is named as such due to the Fresnel lens information technology features as the final optical device within the chain.

Traditionally theatre and phase lighting has been of the "generic" type. These are lights which are focussed, geled, and so simply dimmed to give the effect the designer wants. In recent years the emergence of moving lights (or automated lights) has had a substantial touch of theatre and phase lighting.

A typical moving light allows the designer to control the position, color, shape, size and strobing of the calorie-free axle created. This can exist used for exciting effects for the entertainment or dancefloor utilise. Moving lights are as well ofttimes used instead of having a big number of "generic" lights. This is considering one moving light tin can do the piece of work of several generics.

In Australia and many other places, the lamps inside a theatrical fixture are referred to equally bubbles.^[21] In Northward American English, a bubble refers to the protrusion that occurs when one's torso (or other oily substance) contacts the lamp. Heat will cause the portion of the lamp which has oil on it to expand when it is on creating the bubble, and causing the lamp to explode. That is why one should never direct touch on the glass portion of a lamp. Cleaning with rubbing alcohol will remove the oil.

Lighting controls [edit]

MA Lighting's grandMA2 Full Size panel

Lighting control tools might best be described equally anything that changes the quality of the light. Historically this has been done by the use of intensity command. Technological advancements have made intensity control relatively simple - solid state dimmers are controlled by i or more lighting controllers. Controllers are commonly lighting consoles designed for sophisticated control over very large numbers of dimmers or luminaires, simply may be simpler devices which play back stored sequences of lighting states with minimal user interfaces. Consoles are too referred to as lighting desks or light-boards.^[22]

For larger shows or installations, multiple consoles are sometimes used together and in some cases lighting controllers are combined or coordinated with controllers for audio, automated scenery, pyrotechnics and other effects to provide total automation of the entire evidence, using a specific branch of MIDI technology called MSC (MIDI show control). See show control.

The lighting controller is connected to the dimmers (or direct to automated luminaires) using a control cable or wireless link (e.g. DMX512) or network, allowing the dimmers which are bulky, hot and sometimes noisy, to exist positioned away from the stage and audience and assuasive automated luminaires to be positioned wherever necessary. In addition to DMX512, newer control connections include RDM (remote device direction) which adds management and status feedback capabilities to devices which use it while maintaining compatibility with DMX512; and Architecture for Control Networks (ACN) which is a fully featured multiple controller networking protocol. These allow the possibility of feedback of position, land or fault conditions from units, whilst assuasive much more detailed control of them.^[23]

Dimming [edit]

A pair of electronic ii.4 kW dimmers for tungsten incandescent lamps

A dimmer is a device used to vary the average voltage practical to an instrument's lamp. The brightness of a lamp depends on its electric current, which in turn depends on the applied lamp voltage. When the practical voltage is decreased, a lamp'southward electric current volition too subtract, thus reducing the light output from the lamp (dimming information technology). Conversely, a higher voltage will crusade college lamp current and increased (brighter) light output. Dimmers are ofttimes found in large enclosures called racks or dimmer racks that draw pregnant three-phase ability. They are often removable modules that range from 20-ampere, 2.4-kilowatt to 100-ampere units.

In the case of incandescent lamps, some color changes occur as a lamp is dimmed, allowing for a limited corporeality of color control through a dimmer. Fades (brightness transitions) can be either Up or Down, meaning that the light output is increasing or decreasing during the transition. Most modern dimmers are solid state, though many mechanical dimmers are still in operation.^[24]

In many cases, a dimmer can be replaced by a constant ability module (CPM), which is typically a 20- or fifty-ampere breaker in a dimming module casing. CPMs are used to supply line voltage to not-dimming electrical devices such as smoke machines, chain winches, and breathtaking motors that require constant operating voltage. When a device is powered by a CPM, it is fully energized whenever the CPM is turned on, independent of lighting panel levels. CPMs must be used (in lieu of dimmers) to power non-dimming devices that require specific line voltages (e.g. in the Us, 120 V, 60 Hz power)^[25] in lodge to avoid damage to such devices. Dimmers are seldom used to command non-dimming devices because fifty-fifty if a dimmer channel is trusted to always operate at total ability, it may not exist controlled when communications are disrupted by first up and shut down of the lighting control surface, noise interference, or DMX disconnects or failure. Such a loss of control might cause a dimmer to dim a circuit and thus potentially damage its non-dimming device.

Devices like moving heads also require independent power, equally they cannot function on a partially dimmed channel for power, on top of requiring several other channels in gild to convey all of the data they crave for their several features. In lodge to simplify the command of moving head lanterns, instead of assigning channels manually to the lantern, many desks also offer a fixtures section, where ane tin can assign the lantern equally a fixture, allowing the desk to organise the data being transferred to the lantern on a much simpler scale for the operator. Fixtures may besides contain smoke machines, snow machines, haze machines etc., assuasive many special effects to exist run from a single desk.

Increasingly, modern lighting instruments are available which let remote control of effects other than light intensity, including direction, colour, beam shape, projected paradigm, and beam angle. The power to move an instrument always more quickly and quietly is an industry goal. Some automated lights have built-in dimming and and so are connected directly to the command cable or network and are independent of external dimmers.

See also [edit]

• DJ lighting
• Gas lighting
• High-central lighting
• Low-key lighting
• Tree lights

References [edit]

1. ^ [one], Stage Lighting Pattern Principle and Process
2. ^ [2] theatrecrafts' Types of Lanterns.
3. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Penzel, Frederick (1978). Theatre Lighting Before Electricity . Middletown, CT: Wesleyan UP U.
4. ^ McCandless, Stanley (1958). A Method of Lighting the Stage, Quaternary Edition. New York: Theatre Arts Books. pp. 9–10. ISBN978-0-87830-082-2.
5. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Low-cal: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Quaternary Edition. McGraw Loma. pp. 9–x. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-3.
6. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, 4th Edition. McGraw Colina. p. ten. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-three.
7. ^ ^{a b} Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Low-cal: An Introduction to Phase Lighting, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill. p. 7. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-3.
8. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Light: An Introduction to Phase Lighting, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill. p. fifty. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-3.
9. ^ [1] Larn Stage Lighting - How do I Apply Color Effectively?
10. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Calorie-free: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Quaternary Edition. McGraw Hill. pp. 62–64. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-3.
11. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Quaternary Edition. McGraw Loma. p. 181. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-3.
12. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Light: An Introduction to Phase Lighting, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill. pp. 152–158. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-3.
13. ^ Lampert-Gréaux, Ellen (2007-05-01). "Recollect Stanley McCandless?". Live Design Online. Penton Media, Inc. Retrieved 2008-01-29 .
14. ^ McCandless, Stanley (1958). A Method of Lighting the Stage, Fourth Edition. New York: Theatre Arts Books. pp. 55–56. ISBN978-0-87830-082-2.
15. ^ Briggs, Jody (2003). Encyclopedia of Stage Lighting. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. pp. 318–319. ISBN978-0-7864-1512-0.
16. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Low-cal: An Introduction to Phase Lighting, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill. pp. 12–13. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-3.
17. ^ [3] Scenic Art for the Theatre by Susan Crabtree and Peter Beudert.
18. ^ [four] Interior Graphic Standards past Corky Binggeli and Patricia Greichen p. 558
19. ^ [5] Phase Lighting Primer
20. ^ Connecticut College Theater Services Hazard Advice Guide, Please see 'Lights' section.
21. ^ "Glossary of Technical Theatre Terms – Lighting (advanced) – Theatrecrafts.com". Retrieved 2019-05-xi .
22. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition. McGraw Colina. pp. 95, 97, 100–102. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-3.
23. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Low-cal: An Introduction to Phase Lighting, Fourth Edition. McGraw Loma. p. 96. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-3.
24. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Low-cal: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill. p. 89. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-three.
25. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill. p. 92. ISBN978-0-7674-2733-iii.

Further reading [edit]

• Bergman, Gösta, M (1977) Lighting in the Theatre, Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell / Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield
• Palmer, Richard H (1985) The Lighting Art: The Aesthetics of Stage Lighting Design. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
• Palmer, Scott (2013) Light: Readings in Theatre Practice, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
• Penzel, Frederick (1978) "Theatre Lighting before Electricity". Middletown, CT: Wesleyan UP.
• Pilbrow, Richard (1997) Stage Lighting Design: The Art, the Craft, the Life, Nick Hern Books, London. ISBN 978-i-85459-996-4.

External links [edit]

• Phase Lighting for Students

rosslooduale.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_lighting

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